[Table of Contents]
9. STAND MANAGEMENT/TENDING
Stand tending and management are not explicitly addressed in the Act or Regulations.
BRITISH COLUMBIA
Stand Management Prescriptions specifying post free growing stand treatments must be prepared, signed and sealed by a registered professional forester. Stand tending must be designed to maintain or enhance forest health, and must be consistent with integrated resource management and higher level plan objectives. Where spacing or commercial thinning is carried out, care must be taken to ensure that sufficient trees, which are ecologically suitable for natural regeneration, are left standing and undamaged. Fertilizers must be stored, handled and applied in a manner that protects forest resources, and must not be applied within 100 m upslope of a water intake or within 10 m of a perennial stream in a community watershed. Soil disturbance must be minimized in any stand management operations.
The following points must be considered when prescribing and conducting stand management / tending treatments:
- sensitive treatment or no treatment in or around sensitive areas, wildlife trees, riparian management areas, or wildlife habitat areas,
- management objectives for maintaining biodiversity,
- ecological characteristics of the site,
- treatments should favour the formation of mixed-species stands,
- treatments must not result in new or significantly intensified damage from forest health factors,
- avoid measures that are unnecessary for stand development and that may reduce biodiversity, e.g. leave shrubs and other species that are not competing with crop trees or that are desired to be retained, such as Pacific Yew and Red Osier Dogwood,
- treatments must be planned and conducted to avoid causing damage to the environment.
CALIFORNIA
Standards for intermediate cuttings (e.g. thinnings) are established and are presented in Subchapters 4, 5 & 6, Article 3 of the Rules.
FINLAND
A directive given by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry interpreted Section 1 of the Private Forest Act as also regulating the treatment of young regenerating stands. For example, the forest owner may not thin too heavily or damage stems or roots during tending measures (J. Heino, pers. comm.).
The Finnish Forest and Park Service encourage stand improvement methods that enhance existing natural conditions.
Mixed forests are also encouraged by the National Forestry Centres.
The new environmental program for forestry outlines 11 points to consider during stand management and tending (Ministries of Agriculture, Forestry, and Environment, 1994).
- sensitive treatment of key biotopes,
- naturalness of operations,
- recognition of biodiversity and details of the nature,
- favouring formation of broad-leaved woods and mixed stands,
- maintenance of forest health and counteracting potential damaging agents,
- avoiding measures unnecessary for stand development and excessive cleaning from the point of view of biodiversity,
- awareness of environmental impacts and prevention of environmental damage,
- protection of natural values,
- landscape management,
- wildlife management,
- consideration for multiple-use forestry and recreational values.
Thinning is a prominent stand management technique. The majority of stands are thinned two to four times prior to clearcutting (Heino et al., 1994). The degree to which thinning is recommended depends on geographic area, site fertility and the species to be retained after cutting. Generally, the first thinning is recommended when the stand is 13 to 15 m in height. At that time, trees of poor quality are removed.
Thinning intensity is guided by thinning models developed by the Finnish Forest Research Institute and refined for specific user groups and geographic areas by the Forest and Park Service, Tapio Forestry Centre, and the forest companies. Generally, the recommended thinning intensity is no more than 1/3 of the stand volume (National Extension Service).
GERMANY
Federal Republic of Germany
Section 6 of the Federal Forest Act outlines the basic principles that State forestry must abide by. The principles pertaining to stand management are:
- natural characteristics of the forest must be retained;
- the forest structure must ensure proper forest functioning; and
- maximum timber production should not deplete site conditions.
Baden-Wurttemberg
The Forest Law does not specify stand management techniques other than the reference to the use of appropriate forestry that is included in Section 12. Specific stand management procedures are encouraged through subsidies. Limbing, thinning, and fertilizing are the commonly applied practices. The objectives of stand management are to prevent wind throw, regulate the species composition, and concentrate the increment on a limited number of stems.
Forest stands are intensely thinned. Initial spacing occurs before age 10 and is usually followed by a thinning every decade. The volume of wood to be removed during each thinning is specified in the 10 year forest management plan. The specified volume is based on age versus density and allowable removable volume tables that have been compiled for each tree species (Brunner, pers. comm.). Usually stands are thinned to 100 to 300 trees per hectare, depending on the species. Thinning is done for stabilization of the stand and future timber value.
Thinning requirements are enforced by the local district foresters. Subsidies may be withheld until stand management practices are satisfactory.
Bavaria
Stand management prescriptions are not required by the Forest Law. As in Baden-Wurttemberg, the obligation to use appropriate forestry is the only reference to required stand management (Article 14, Forest Law). Forest stands are intensely managed and thinning is the main stand tending technique. Fertilizer is used on weakened forest stands if the location permits. Often, fertilizer application is not to increase stand productivity but to reduce the effects of soil acidification caused by air pollution.
Approximately 20 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare per year are received on forest sites as a result of air pollution (Brunner, pers. comm.).
Forest owners are free to choose their stand tending practices, but preferred techniques are encouraged through subsidies.
Mixed species forests that contain a strong, well-shaped canopy layer, a developing secondary layer and understorey are desired (Brinkmann, pers. comm.).
NOVA SCOTIA
Pre-commercial thinning and commercial thinning are carried out to increase yields and promote the growth and quality of desirable crop trees (M.O.P.S., 1994, Ch 5.3.2: 1). Sugar bush thinning encourages optimum growth and crown development for sap production, and white pine pruning is carried out to allow for development of high-quality butt logs. Chemical weeding is carried out to control undesirable vegetation during the juvenile stages of naturally regenerated stands or plantations (M.O.P.S., 1994, Ch 5.3.5: 1).
ONTARIO
Stand management is undertaken to ensure the survival and development of the stand throughout the rotation, (Silvicultural Guide for Spruce Working Group in Ontario, 1988:63), and includes manual, mechanical, chemical and new techniques, such as grazing of sheep. It may take the form of cleaning, spacing, improvement, fertilization, thinning or pruning. Chosen techniques depend on the species in question.
OREGON
There are no explicit provisions dealing with stand tending or management in the Rules.
SWEDEN
The Forestry Act does not specifically require the establishment of a free-growing stand. However, this is required in National Parks and areas with special management regulations (H. Eriksson, pers. comm.). In general, harvesting is not permitted unless it promotes the establishment of a new stand or benefits the development of an existing stand (Section 10).
The forest owner is responsible for the establishment and the tending of new stands (Section 8). Site conditions, which include exposure to wind, topography, soil texture, hydrology, and ground vegetation, must be considered when managing stands. Other important considerations include the availability of suitable seed trees and shelterwood.
Site management objectives are established and integrated with broader strategic level planning objectives when the forest owner plans to clearcut. Section 30 of the Forestry Act requires stand level objectives to be consistent with the government's broad scale objectives regarding nature conservation and cultural heritage preservation. For example, old-growth, both conifers and broadleaved, must be preserved (H. Eriksson, pers. comm.).
To maintain the broad scale objectives, the Government and the County Forestry Board have the power to regulate the size and form of harvesting areas, the type of regeneration method, the retention of individual or groups of trees, fertilization, drainage and the routing of forest roads (Section 30, Forestry Act). However, the requirements under Section 30 must not be so extensive that the current land use of a forest holding is severely handicapped. Normally, the area to be left for nature conservation can not exceed 5% of the timber value of a harvested area (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.).
The government or County board may also prohibit forest activities on forest waste land, land unsuitable for wood production, unless site improvements occur (Section 2, Forest Act).
TASMANIA
Thinning, slash burning, hazard reduction burning, and chemical weed and pest control are used to maintain forest productivity. Where fire is not necessary for regeneration establishment, slash burning should only occur on steep slopes for fire protection measures (FPC, 1993:79). The Forestry Commission's Plantation Handbook provides details on thinning regimes, timing of thinning, etc (FPC, 1993:83).
UNITED KINGDOM
Stand management prescriptions are required for Woodland Grant Scheme and Forest Enterprise sites.
U.S. FOREST SERVICE (REGION 6)
Standards are set according to regional and forest policy and silvicultural prescriptions.
VICTORIA STATE
Private landholders should be encouraged to tend native timber production stands (Code, 1989:31), and, wherever it is economically feasible, appropriate steps consistent with environmental safeguards should be taken to tend native timber production stands on public land (Code, 1989:10). Fire prevention and protection measures must be taken to protect timber stands from wildfire. Thinning and fertilising to promote forest health and timber production may occur, and care must be used not to introduce or spread disease or insect or plant pests. Any harmful effects of tending operations must be minimized on areas which will not be harvested (Code, 1989:10, 31).
WASHINGTON
Stand management is not treated explicitly in forest practices legislation.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Advanced burning to reduce the build up of scrub, and therefore the incidence of bush fires, is a prescribed stand management technique (CALM, 1987:30). Thinning, spacing and fertilizing methods are utilized to improve growth and quality, and in jarrah forests, intensive management techniques are used to prevent the spread of jarrah dieback.
