Excavated or bladed trails must not be constructed on areas with a high likelihood of landslides unless a detailed terrain stability assessment determines that constructing the trails will not cause the terrain to become unstable. All constructed trails must be rehabilitated to restore soil productivity upon completion of timber harvesting.
Trees must not be felled into streams, wetlands, lakes, marine-sensitive zones, or fisheries-sensitive zones, unless that is the only practicable way the timber can be felled. All woody debris that enters these areas must be removed. Timber must not be yarded or skidded over a stream or a fisheries-sensitive zone, unless through the implementation of specified measures the yarding or skidding can be conducted in a manner that will avoid causing damage to these areas. Trees that have root systems that are contributing to streambank stability or that are providing shade to small streams that is necessary for the health of fish in the stream and for the quality of water for domestic consumption must not be damaged by timber harvesting operations.
Temporary streams crossings must only be constructed at approved locations and must be constructed to minimize damage to the streambanks. All temporary crossings must be removed upon completion of harvesting. Other than at designated stream crossing locations, the tracks or wheels of ground-based machinery must not be allowed to enter within 5 m of a stream in order to protect understory vegetation and streambanks.
Resource features such as active nesting sites of eagles, and blue herons, household water supply intakes, cultural heritage features, and recreation features must not be damaged. Clearcutting is not allowed on areas identified to have a high likelihood of landslides, wildlife habitat areas for species requiring canopy retention, old growth management areas, or within the riparian reserve zones established adjacent to fish-bearing streams and streams in community watersheds.
Cut blocks must be designed to reflect natural disturbance patterns and must incorporate a variety of sizes, shapes and patterns distributed across the landscape. Maximum cut block size for clear cuts must reflect direction provided by strategic plans, for example, Landscape Unit objectives for maintaining biodiversity. In the absence of such direction, maximum sizes are 40ha for the Vancouver, Nelson and Kamloops Forest Regions and 60ha for the Cariboo, Prince George and Prince Rupert Forest Regions.
There are special measures that restrict operations in or near riparian areas, lakeshores and wetlands, or on steep or otherwise erodible areas. In some cases, seeding of fills or cuts may be required.
Clearcuts within one ownership are usually limited to 20 acres (8 ha) for ground skidding and 30 acres (12 ha) for aerial or cable yarded areas. Ground skidded clearcuts on slopes less than 30% and with low erosion hazard ratings may be as large as 30 acres (12 ha). Openings up to 40 acres (16 ha) are allowed if an RPF can demonstrate that the larger size will result in greater efficiency without incurring excessive environmental damage.
Timber harvesting methods for private forest lands are outlined in guidelines compiled and distributed by the Forestry Centres. A description of harvesting techniques and recommendations on implementation of the techniques are detailed for specific forest types in Finland. However, the private forest owner is not obligated to use a specific harvesting or regeneration method.
Harvesting methods and procedures in state forests are controlled through a combination of requirements and guidelines. Harvesting restrictions exist for hill summits and shoreline stands, woodlots adjoining protected areas, capercaillie breeding sites, colonies of endangered species, and sensitive areas such as protection zones required for water pollution control. Additional guidelines outline preferred techniques, such as landscape features, to consider before harvesting (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994).
Clearcutting is not recommended if it will harm biodiversity or be detrimental to the landscape. If clearcutting is to be used, cut-block size is determined by analyzing surrounding landscape features. Clearcut sizes are not specified in the Private Forest Act. However, the Forestry Centres do recommend that cut areas do not exceed 2 to 3 ha in the south of Finland or 7 to 10 ha in the north.
Minimizing harvesting damage is key to the new environmental plan for forestry:
Federal Republic of Germany
The Federal Forest Law stipulates land use change cannot occur in forest land without permission and harvested areas must be reforested (Sections 9 and 11). As well, the Federal Act encourages increasing the forest land base through afforestation (Section 6).
The State Forest Administration of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Forestry may grant permission to clear forest for two purposes (Section 9, Federal Forest Act):
In1989, members from all state forest administrations met to formulate an appropriate forestry policy. Although the policy is not law, the use of Appropriate Forestry is being encouraged (Brunner, pers. comm.). To practice Appropriate
Forestry the following guidelines must be adhered to:
In 1992, the annual cut for the Federal Republic of Germany was 28 million m3 (von Heyebrand, pers. comm.).
Baden-Wurttemberg
Sections 12 to 16 of the Forest Law regulate timber harvesting activities. Section 12 states the forest owner must manage the land according to appropriate forestry and sustainability. Section 13 defines sustainability as a sustainable timber supply and recreation resource, and continued ecosystem functioning. General rules to consider during harvesting are listed in Section 14. The forest owner must maintain the soil and its fertility, maintain and build a biologically healthy forest, manage the forest, avoid forest damage, protect the forest from animal damage and competitive plants, build sufficient roads, and harvest carefully.
Clearcutting is defined and regulated in Section 15. There are two types of clearcuts: all trees are removed; or greater than 60% of the standing volume is removed.
Clearcuts more than 2 ha (the 1985 Forest Law states clearcuts > 4 ha need permission; this requirement was changed to 2 ha in 1994 (Brunner, pers. comm.)), or 1 ha in Soil Protection Forests, require prior permission from the Forest Office and adjacent cuttings are not allowed until regeneration has been secured in the neighbouring block. The Forest Office determines if regeneration has been secured.
Section 16 states the rotation age of both conifers and broadleaf trees. Clearcuts are forbidden in coniferous stands younger than 50 years and in deciduous stands younger than 70 years.
Timber harvesting in state and community forests is managed according to the forest management and the annual forest plans. The forest administration provides information on the stands to be harvested, the planned silvicultural practices, and the expected revenues and costs be included in the annual plans but there are no specific requirements in the Forest Law. As well, there are no minimum utilization limits and no revegetation of exposed soil is necessary. The forest administration has the power to require private forests with holdings greater than 50 ha to prepare forestry plans (Section 20-2). Subsidies are available to compile plans for private holdings, but the administration rarely requests them (Brunner, pers. comm.).
Special timber harvesting restrictions apply in protected forest areas (Sections 30 to 33, Forest Law). There are four protected forest designations: soil protection; environmental impact (protect communities from flooding or air pollution); recreation forests; and areas with significant biodiversity values. Protected forests are subject to additional silvicultural management regulations and harvesting restrictions. Clearcuts are only allowed if special conditions are met and they may be reduced to a one ha maximum. In forests protected for biodiversity all activities are restricted (Section 32, Forest Law).
In 1993, approximately 8 million m3 of wood was harvested in Baden-Wurttemberg (Kladtke, pers. comm.).
Bavaria
Timber harvesting is not directly regulated by Bavaria's Forest Law. However, Article 14 of the law does state appropriate forestry is required, and Articles 7 and 19 address the planning of forest activities in community forests.
Article 14 also authorizes the Forest Office to prescribe special regulations for harvesting in sensitive areas. The sensitive areas are designated as protection forests. They include steep slopes, high elevation forests, ridges, areas that are prone to soil erosion, Karst topography, landslide and flood areas, sand dunes, and forests that protect adjacent forests from storm damage. The sensitive areas and the criteria for their designation are listed in Article 10 of the Forest Law. No clearcutting is allowed in protection forests and they must be revegetated following any disturbance.
Timber harvesting plans are required by Articles 7 and 19 of the Forest Law. The plans must include information on the amount of timber that will be cut and the method of regeneration.
Clearcut sizes are not legislated in the Forest Law. However, large clearcuts (greater than 4 ha) do not occur because of the social stigma attached to defacing the landscape (Brunner, pers. comm.). Utilization limits are also not specified.
In 1993, approximately 9 million m3 of wood was harvested, mainly in small size harvesting (Brinkmann, pers. comm.).
A range of sizes for clearcut harvesting is required, with a maximum cut-block size not to exceed 260 ha in the boreal forest. MNR must ensure that clearcuts are planned to a range of sizes and [do] not consistently approach or meet the permitted maximum. Where for sound biological or silvicultural reasons individual or contiguous clearcuts exceed 260 ha, they shall be recorded in the Plan as an exception to this condition, with reasons provided (Class Environmental Assessment, 1994:439).
The Code of Practice for Timber Management Operations in Riparian Areas and the Timber Management Guidelines for the Protection of Fish Habitat outline a number of mandatory and suggested best practices for timber management activities. Where site conditions necessitate that these practices be followed, specific local requirements will be included within the annual cut approval which a company must submit for approval by the MNR (e.g. requirements for high flotation tires). Harvesting and renewal equipment vary across the province. Careful practice by responsible machine operators is the key factor in preventing site damage. A free-growing stand must be established on depleted areas, and stands cannot be entered back into inventory without a free-to-grow assessment. Forest Management Plans provide for maximum utilization of timber, including the use of unmerchantable or unmarketable timber for fuel wood (FMPM, 1994:86).
There are strict provisions for stream and riparian area protection.
The Oregon Forest Practices Act limits clearcut size to 120 acres (49 ha) for a single ownership in most cases. The ODF may approve clearcuts up to 240 acres (98 ha) under some circumstances, such as for conversion of deciduous to coniferous stands. The average size of clearcuts in Oregon is now about 38 acres (15 ha) (Hayes, S. 1994. pers. comm.).
Forest owners are required to notify the County Forestry Board six weeks prior to harvesting. During this six week period, the County Forestry Board will check the registers for all timber and nature conservation data related to the stand proposed for cutting. If the data indicates plans must be altered, a representative will visit the site and provide advice and direction as required by the Act.
Harvesting must promote the establishment of new stands or benefit the development of existing stands and it is essential that nature conservation and cultural heritage preservation be considered prior to harvest (Section 10 &14). Information on how the essential aspects will be retained must be provided in the final felling form given to the County Forestry Board (Section 14 & 27).
The government, or public authority designated by the government may issue regulations regarding drainage projects and the routing of forest roads, the form and size of harvest areas, the retention of individual or groups of trees, and the regeneration method and use of fertilizers following harvest (Section 30). Government also has the authority to protect underage stands from harvesting and to specify the maximum allowable percentage of forest that can be harvested during a given period (Section 10 & Section 11).
Regulations are usually specified for proposed harvesting in mountainous regions, sites difficult to regenerate, reindeer husbandry areas, riparian areas, community watersheds and selected valuable broadleaved forests (Forestry Act p.8). If the proposed practice risks nature conservation or cultural heritage preservation, harvesting is prohibited (Section 18).
The County Forestry Board may grant exemptions to the harvesting regulations (Section 10 & 25). They may also require a guarantee as a condition to harvesting permission if extensive and costly regeneration methods are expected, such as in difficult to regenerate areas or selected valuable broadleaved forests (Section 37).
The forestry owner decides which harvesting system to implement, clearcutting (clearcutting in Sweden has two forms, 1) all trees are harvested 2) seed or screen trees are left standing) or selective harvesting. However, selective cuttings are generally not permitted. Selective cutting was the method of choice during the first half of the 20th century. It resulted in the harvesting of selected timber sizes that left open stands of low productivity.
Minimum rotation age is stated in forest regulations. The age was lowered in the 1994 Forestry Act. The rotation age of conifer stands vary from 45 years on good sites to 100 years on very poor sites. Hardwoods, such as birch, aspen, and alder have a minimum rotation age of 35 years while the rotation for oak and beech is 100 years (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.).
Cut blocks in alpine areas are limited to less than 20 ha. The Forest Act does not specify size limits for other areas. The only regulations pertaining to cut block size are listed in Section 30 where it states the size and form of cut areas should conform to the environment and that the size should be limited. Recommendations and guidelines do state that cut blocks should not exceed 10 to 20 ha in southern Sweden, 50 ha in northern Sweden or 5 ha near urban areas (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.).
Exemptions or variances to the standards established for cut-block size can be granted by the County Forestry Board and in some cases the County board may prescribe a cut block size. However the prescription will not be enforced if the forest holding does not contain alternative harvesting areas.
Clearfelling must not occur in streamside reserves, visually sensitive areas (including landscape priority zone A areas); domestic water supply areas; or on steep slopes, where cable logging should be used (FPC, 1993:45). Because Tasmania's FPC provides standards to protect environmental values during forest operations, it does not apply to utilization standards (FPC, 1993:i).
Clearcutting (clearfelling) is the main logging system used in the U.K., and guidelines for timber harvesting consider shape and scale in landscape, aspects of biodiversity, and special conditions regarding on-site practices with respect to water quality. These can be enforced contractually with purchases of standing timber and in the specifications of contracts with private owners via the Woodland Grant Scheme. Special restrictions can be imposed in areas for watercourse protection, archaeological site protection, special habitat protection, and riparian habitat. These restrictions must be specified in operational plans. No requirements exist regarding revegetation of exposed soil, as regeneration of ground cover species and non-forest regeneration is natural.
Timber utilization limits in Region 6 are set at: length = 8 feet (about 2.4 m), diameter-breast-height (Dbh) = 9 inches (about 23 cm) and top diameter = 4 inches (about 10 cm). Maximum Dbh to be cut in thinnings varies, but is often set at 25 inches (about 64 cm).
Revegetation of disturbed soil may be required. That is addressed in contract conditions.
Guidelines on the number of snags and down logs per acre to be left following logging are set in contracts.
In Region 6, clearcut size is limited to 60 acres (about 25 ha) at lower elevations and 40 acres (about 16 ha) at higher elevations. The size may be increased up to 50% for adequate, documented reasons: for example, to reduce overall road mileage. Average clearcut size in the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie forest is now 35 acres (about 14 ha) (Iozzi, J. and M. Wilson. 1994. pers. comm.). Contrary to some reports, clearcutting is not prohibited, although current policy is to restrict its use compared to past levels (Iozzi, J. 1994. pers. comm.).
In Region 6, an area is considered to be clearcut if fewer than 6 to 8 trees per acre (15-20 per ha) remain. For areas covered by the ROD, settings in which at least 15% of the largest trees remain after logging are not considered to be clearcut.
Green-up provisions specify that logging is not to occur next to a clearcut setting until regeneration in the clearcut is at least 4.5 feet (about 1.4 m) tall and is free-to-grow.
The ROD provides for establishment of riparian reserves. Timber harvesting, including fuelwood cutting is not normally allowed in riparian reserves; exceptions involve salvage or vegetation management if they are part of Aquatic Conservation Strategy Objectives. Riparian reserve areas are not to be included in calculations of annual allowable cuts (U.S. Forest Service, 1994).
Riparian reserve widths vary according to conditions. They vary mainly according to stream class and the height of site-potential trees as defined by FEMAT (a site potential tree is one that has attained the average maximum height possible given site conditions where it occurs). Streams are put in one of 5 classes (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1994b). In the simplest cases, widths (specified as slope distances) range from 100ft (30m) for a seasonally flowing stream without fish to 300ft (100m) for a stream with fish (seasonal or permanent). Widths can be even greater, for example, where average tree heights are greater than 150 feet (about 46 m), where the stream's 100 year floodplain is greater than 600 feet (about 183 m) wide, or where riparian vegetation extends to distances greater than 300 feet (about 94 m) on each side of the stream.
A maximum size for clearcuts under one contiguous ownership is given: 120 acres (49 ha) without special DNR approval and an absolute maximum of 240 acres (98 ha). Openings on islands are restricted to 40 acres (16 ha). Standards are given under this and other headings in the Rules defining what constitutes a clearcut according to: stand age and width; tree height; and stocking. There is no limit on cut-block size for partial cutting system. Requirements differ for eastern and western Washington.
