Management guidelines are in the Biodiversity Guidebook. The management approach is based on the idea that biodiversity will be best maintained by keeping a mosaic of forest (or other vegetation) types similar to those that exist now. Natural Disturbance types (NDT's) are defined based on the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification. At the landscape level, seral stage distribution, temporal and spatial distribution of cut and leave areas, old growth retention and representativeness, landscape connectivity, stand structure and species composition, are addressed. Stand level recommendations are also provided to address coarse woody debris and wildlife tree management.
The New Environmental Program designates the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and the Ministry of Environment as ultimately responsible for monitoring forest biodiversity (Ministries of Agriculture, Forestry, and Environment, 1994). This responsibility will be deferred to the Forest Research Institute and the Forestry Boards for commercial forest areas and the Forest Research Institute, the National Board of Waters and the Environment, and the Forest and Park Service for conservation areas.
The 1994 Forest and Park Service Act includes regulations concerning the conservation of biological diversity and these regulations are now in effect on all state lands. The goal is to create forests that exhibit all stages of succession (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994).
The state law requires the preservation and promotion of genetic, species, and habitat diversity (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994). The objectives of the law specifically call for the preservation of threatened species in commercial forests and the protection of habitats of key species.
Nine key biotopes have been identified as critical to the survival of Finland's endangered species and special requirements govern forest activities in these habitats. The management of the biotopes can focus on special treatments for individual trees, groups of trees or other existing vegetation. State forest requirements include:
Protection of rare and endangered species is also recommended to private forest owners by the National Forestry Centres (National Extension Service, 1994). They suggest private forest owners set aside forest edges, eskers, rocky outcrops, virgin peatlands, wetlands, shorelines, small water courses, highlands, nesting trees and the immediate surrounding area of birds of prey, and habitats of endangered species. If forestry does occur in these sensitive areas, several guidelines apply:
The concept of multi-objective forest management planning has been adopted, and a new forest planning database has been developed for private forests. The system will begin operation in 1995 and will permit a more specific description of forest stands and their biological diversity. The new planning technique will further serve the purpose of landscape planning in privately owned forests (J. Heino, pers. comm.).
The Nature Conservation Act protects flora and fauna and decrees the establishment of nature conservation areas. Legislated in 1923, Finland's Nature Conservation Act is one of the world's oldest conservation Acts (J. Heino, pers. comm.). A proposal for the total reformation of the Nature Conservation Act is currently being prepared. The proposal should be complete by March, 1995 (J. Heino, pers. comm.).
The goals and basic principles of forestry planning outlined in Section 6 of the Federal Forest Act promote biological diversity in Germany's forests. The goals and principles include:
In addition, the general definition of appropriate forestry requires,
The Environmental Administration, guided by the Nature Preservation Law, is attempting to increase biological diversity over the entire land base by changing some general land management procedures. For example, the administration is encouraging land owners to establish natural area corridors and manage them specifically as species habitats. Land owners are also being encouraged to leave unmanaged strips of vegetation along roads. The States are using subsidies to persuade land owners to comply with the environmental administrations wishes.
Germany faces a dilemma not yet experienced by North America. The entire German land base has been intensely managed for centuries. During a portion of this time forest management focussed on increased timber production and the introduction of exotic tree species that would meet this economic objective. The forests that resulted from this management focus were unnatural, and, for the most part, not sustainable without continued intensive management.
Today, forest management stresses natural processes, native species, and a diversity of structure and lifeform. However, because of the highly altered landscapes, attaining this goal still requires intensive management and long-term planning.
Baden-Wurttemberg
Section 14 of the Forest Law requires forest management to maintain and build biological health and Section 32 allows the designation of protection forests for areas with a special function for biodiversity. Banned forests are designated under Section 32.
There are two types of banned forests. The first excludes all activities, except research. These banned forests will proceed unmanaged through their successional stages and will become Baden-Wurttemberg's future old-growth areas, rich in biological diversity. The second type of banned forest allows management practices that will direct the development of the forest (e.g. to retain a successional stage necessary for an endangered species).
The objective of state forest planning is to produce mixed forests of natural species. Private forest owners are offered subsidies to follow the state forest example. The forest management goal is to increase biological diversity over the entire forest land base.
Bavaria
Biodiversity is considered in the Nature Preservation Law for the protection of native and endangered species as well as in the principles for sustainable management outlined in Article 14. In all state forests, rare species are protected by favouring the growth of rare and endangered flora, preserving most biotopes, and extensively managing dry habitats (Brinkmann, pers. comm.).
Bavaria has declared 135 natural or near-natural forest reserves (total of 4,400 ha). The natural forests are excluded from any utilization other than research focussed on observing natural forest development. Near-natural forests have been declared as nature and landscape protection reserves.
Natural and near-natural forests protected by Article 11 of the Forest Law are set aside to ensure future biodiversity.
Under the Crown Forests Sustainability Act, biological diversity must be conserved in forest ecosystems (FMPM, 1994:viii). Biodiversity indicators will be designed, and used to assess sustainability on the forest management unit.
Also, clearcutting restrictions, RMA's and green-up requirements provide some vegetation and habitat diversity.
Over half of the forest lands in Oregon are under the jurisdiction of the USFS and BLM. Assuming that Alternative 9 (of the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact on Management for Late Successional and Old Growth Forest Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl), known as the President's Plan, is in fact adopted, most of these lands will be managed with a priority for biodiversity.
To date, the protection of key habitats has been based on the potential for biological diversity, rather than actual assessments of biodiversity. No systematic inventories of biodiversity at the species or with-in species levels have been conducted in the key-habitat areas (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994 p.94).
The National Forestry Board has introduced several additional regulations and mechanisms to ensure the protection of biodiversity, and the principles of the UNCED's Agenda 21 declaration have been used to develop Sweden's biodiversity policy in forest planning (S. Sohlberg, pers. comm.).
Sweden's larger forest companies are introducing a new forest planning concept to promote biodiversity. The companies are conducting trials of ecological landscape planning over areas ranging from 10,000 to 20,000 ha in size (Baltscheffsky, 1993). The aim of landscape planning is to ensure the survival of all species dependent on the ecosystem by linking extensive areas of valuable natural habitat with corridors of undisturbed forest. It is hoped that ecological landscape planning will be fully in place within 10 years. It is also hoped that this type of planning will be applied to all types of land ownership.
The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has developed a strategy for sustainable development. The strategy, which stresses the importance of preservation of biodiversity in forests contains a forest action program (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1993).
Extra measures to be taken in areas to receive special environmental consideration (montane forests, wet forests (swamp forests) and high grade deciduous forests).
Other proposals of the action program for forestry include;
The Strategy for Sustainable Development, was submitted to the Swedish Government in June 1993.
On Crown forests and private forest lands proposed for fauna maintenance, planning will include consideration of dispersed logging, wildlife habitat strips, wildlife priority areas, streamside reserves, and pest, weed and disease control. On private land, rare and endangered species will be dealt with according to part V(a) of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970. The Minister may enter into conservation covenants, and the landowner may apply for compensation (FPC, 1993:5). Conservation of genetic resources and variety will be by habitat protection, and species and seed selection provisions (FPC, 1993:5). When forested lands are converted to agricultural use, remnant patches of forest vegetation should be included to provide wildlife habitat, erosion control, and shade or windbreak (FPC, 1993:5).
