[Table of Contents]

2. FOREST ROAD ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE

ALASKA

There are provisions in the Regulations covering road location, construction, drainage, bridge standards, culverts and other water crossings, road abandonment and material extraction and disposal. Many of the regulations are advisory in nature, such as keep culverts, flumes and ditches functional but there are also some more detailed, prescriptive requirements. For example, maximum spacing between culverts (or other cross drainage structures) are specified, depending on administrative forest region and percent grade of the road. Also, a design return period of 25 years is specified for culverts.

Rehabilitation of borrow areas and areas where mass wasting was caused by operations, can be required.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Details of road construction, maintenance and, at least for temporary roads, deactivation must be specified in Forest Development Plans, Access Management Plans or Logging Plans. Recommended engineering practices are provided in the Forest Road Engineering Guidebook. Qualified professionals must design drainage structures (e.g. major culverts) and bridges. In potentially unstable areas or areas of erodible soils, qualified professionals must carry out terrain stability assessments, road design, and deactivation prescriptions.

Roads should be planned to minimize the number of stream crossings and the total amount of road built. High value visual areas, critical wildlife habitats, and riparian areas should be avoided or else measures must be taken to minimize and ameliorate impacts. Stream crossings and drainage design must accommodate fish use and fisheries values. All roads must be temporarily, semi-permanently or permanently deactivated when not required for use and depending on planned future use.

CALIFORNIA

The general principal stated in the Rules is that roads and landings are to be located, constructed and maintained in a manner that best balances engineering and economic efficiency with environmental concerns, including cumulative affects. Regarding road location, the Rules specify the following:

Activities in riparian, lakeshore or wetland areas are prohibited or severely restricted. Steep slopes (>50% near riparian areas or other waters and >65% in other areas) may require special measures such as end hauling or drainage design to avoid concentrated runoff. Road grades are limited to 15%, except for short (less than 500 feet [152.4 m]) stretches of up to 20%. Water bars must be installed each winter to specified standards (under the timber harvesting rules).

Some rules are specific to certain forest districts or, in some cases, counties. Rules related to construction, maintenance and abandonment are contained in Article 12 of the California Forest Practice Rules.

All of these matters must be specifically addressed in harvest plans.

FINLAND

The Private Roads Act, which is separate from Finland's private forestry legislation, governs the construction and maintenance of private forest roads. However, funding for private forest road construction is considered in the Forest Improvement Act, Section 5. Forest road construction and maintenance are considered improvement projects and can be subsidized by government.

State forest roads are regulated by the provisions governing public roads.

Engineering safety and environmental objectives concerning forest road design and construction are addressed in Codes of Occupational Safety, Public Roads, and Watershed Management. Recommended road design standards for public roads are also recommended design standards for forest roads.

The guidelines presented in the 1994 Forestry Environment Guide and the New Environmental Guidelines for Forestry stress the need to assess potential environmental impact of a forest road network during the planning stage and to chose the most suitable construction technology and standard for the specific area.

Increasing the proportion of winter roads in ecologically sensitive areas and orienting roads in such a way that landscape management objectives will be maximized are two suggestions for reducing forest road impact.

De-activation of forest roads occurs only in exceptional cases. When necessary, a trench may be excavated or bridges and culverts will be removed (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994).

GERMANY

Federal Republic of Germany

The Federal Forest Act does not address forest road engineering and maintenance other than specify it as a possible task of the forest associations (Section 17).

Baden-Wurttemberg

Construction and maintenance of forest roads are regulated in Section 19 and 28 of the Forest Law. Section 19 defines forest roads and provides the following general environmental standard: the roads must not degrade the landscape or the forest soil or unduly disturb the surrounding vegetation (Section 19-2a). However, Section 19-2b states technical and economic criteria should be taken into account and a balance between the environmental standards and the technical and economic feasibility be determined.

Section 28 governs property rights in regard to road construction and access. A forest owner may build a road through another's property to access their forest land. All costs will be incurred by the party building the road. As well, a forest owner must allow other forest managers or workers to use their road. Users must pay for the use. Expropriation, with compensation, may occur if access to a remote forest is required.

There are no regulations governing the planning, design, or maintenance and deactivation of forest roads in the Forest Law. Information on soil or slope stability, existing drainage patterns or stream crossings are also not required. There are no special provisions for forest road construction in any sensitive areas other than those specified in Section 19-2a.

The forest road network within state forests is complete. Every hectare of forest land is roaded, with an average of 115 m of road per hectare (Brunner, pers. comm.). Almost one-half of these roads are passable by car. The road network is continually maintained, and there are no deactivations or permanent road closures.

There are a small number of roads still to be constructed in community and private forests. No permission is required to build the roads. However, the forest administration offers road building subsidies. Conditions, such as road placement, are attached to the subsidies. Another government attempt to co-ordinate road building in community and private forests is through the Forest Associations. The Forest Office will plan and oversee road building for an association if requested. Forest Office involvement may be another subsidy requirement.

Bavaria

The Bavarian Forest Law does not contain provisions for forest roads. The construction of forest roads is regarded as a part of appropriate forestry. Guidelines for forest road construction are contained in two separate manuals (Brinkmann, pers. comm.). Information on how to build forest roads in mountainous terrain is contained in a 30 page manual. The second manual provides guidelines for the construction of forest roads in state forests and nature preserves. The manuals specify consideration of landscape features, awareness of unstable terrain and the protection of natural resources.

As in Baden-Wurttemberg, subsidies are available for road building. Road placement can be the decision of the private forest owner or the authority granting the subsidy. In state forests, decisions are made by the Administrative Forest District, sometimes in conjunction with the environmental administration.

Road construction in protective forests requires permission.

NOVA SCOTIA

Forest roads should be planned to provide convenient access and to reduce or avoid environmental damage to watercourses (M.O.P.S., 1994, Ch 6, 1). Pre-planning for road location must consider streams, wildlife areas, soils, and timing of construction. Roads must avoid thin, sandy or silty soils, and road grade must not exceed 16%. Stream crossings must be minimized, and roads must not be constructed within 30 m of a stream or lake. Individual permits, that lay out the conditions for operation as set out by the Nova Scotia Department of Environment, are required for every stream crossing. Where stream crossings are necessary, they must be located in the most stable soil type, and where road grades are not too steep. No-Grub zones of 30 m must be used on approaches to streams and other sensitive areas (M.O.P.S., 1994, Ch 2:11). Roads must be properly drained, and ditches must not discharge directly into watercourses (NS DOE/DFO, 1983:20). Skid trails must be rehabilitated by seeding with grass or hay upon completion of their use. Roads must be maintained by inspection of drainage ditches, grading roads to fill ruts, and keeping roads free of shading to maximize exposure to sun and wind. Traffic must be kept to a minimum during wet weather or when road surface is soft, and snow must be removed to prevent build up of water on the road surface. Cuts, fills and ditches must be stabilized by grassing, sloping or terracing to reduce or prevent erosion (NS DOE/DFO, 1983:23-24). Forest access roads that are not required following completion of operations must be rehabilitated (Crown Lands Act, 1987: s. 27-4).

ONTARIO

Forest roads are considered at both the strategic and operational planning levels. Decisions about road location and identification of Areas of Concern are made in the 20 year Timber Management Plan, renewed at 5-year intervals. Site specific decisions, such as alignment within the corridor, as well as bridge and culvert sizes, are made in the annual work schedule and permit process for each season's work. Bridges must be designed by professional engineers. Mandatory environmental standards have been laid down, and good management practices are expected to be used to meet the standards (Adamson, pers. comm.). Roads should not be constructed on hilly, steep terrain, on erodible or shallow soils, near recreational areas, waterbodies or wetlands, and water crossings must be minimized. Landings should be on high ground to avoid rutting and blocking of drainage patterns. Special measures are taken near all water bodies, creeks and rivers. Erosion control and sedimentation control measures must be taken to protect water quality. Heavy construction equipment must not be used during spawning and incubation periods and must be kept to minimum at all times. The use of bridges or arch culverts is recommended for fish migration routes where the roughness of a natural stream bed is desirable for reducing flow velocity. Natural vegetation should be maintained as much as possible to minimize soil exposure. Road drainage systems must be maintained to prevent rutting, puddling and slumping. Temporary bridges should be removed when their use is finished. Where roads are physically or naturally abandoned, consideration should be given to the regeneration of road right-of-ways. The Use Management Strategy of the Timber Management Plan addresses the duration of road use and actions proposed when use ends (Env. Guidelines for Access Roads and Water Crossings, 1988).

OREGON

Rules regarding roads are given mainly on a regional basis for each of the three administrative regions: northwest, southwest and eastern Oregon. Roads are considered mainly at the operational planning level. State-managed lands, where strategic planning is carried out, are an exception. Where written plans are submitted, the minimum information required is: location; construction techniques; drainage systems; disposal of waste materials; riparian area protection; and post-operation stabilization measures.

Maintenance, rehabilitation and deactivation are also considered on a regional basis. Most of the rules are in the form of general guidelines such as "design cut and fill slopes to minimize the risk of mass wasting". Rules directed at riparian area protection or protection of rare or endangered wildlife species are more prescriptive and strict. There are some other specific requirements given, such as designing culverts for the 50-year return period.

No specific engineering design standards are given in the Rules and there are no specific professional qualifications required for road or bridge design.

SWEDEN

The government has the authority to regulate the routing of forest roads (Forestry Act, Section 30). The roads must adapt to the surroundings and not destroy or disturb sensitive areas (biology, geology, water, or ancient remains). Information on the location of protected and sensitive areas must be obtained during the design stage and, if possible, road construction is to be avoided in the sensitive areas. Special permission is required before forest road construction can proceed in alpine areas (Forestry Act, Section 17) and reindeer husbandry areas (Forestry Act, Section 31).

Forest owners may request a road network plan from the County Forestry Board. The County board prepares a map that identifies areas in need of roads. The purpose of the road network plan is to coordinate road building between forest land owners. Adhering to the plan may be a condition for receiving road building subsidies.

Design standards, maintenance or rehabilitation requirements, or de-activation plans are not outlined in the Forestry Act.

TASMANIA

Roads must be planned and located to fit into the landscape so that minimal disruption to natural features will occur. Design standards must be adopted that will ensure safety for the anticipated traffic. The location of roads must be avoided in unstable areas, streamside reserves, on highly erodible soils, and anywhere that roading would substantially affect significant other values. Construction must be planned to occur in the dry season, and must minimize stream crossings and soil exposure (FPC, 1993: 10). Roads constructed parallel to a watercourse should be at least 100m from a class 1 and 2 watercourse and 40m from all other watercourses (FPC, 1993:11). Roads must be maintained to ensure a stable running surface; keep drainage systems operating; keep soil exposure to a minimum; control roadside vegetation only to keep the road surface dry, permit visibility, and for fire control purposes (FPC, 1993:22). Upon completion of harvesting operations, and if roads are not needed for future access they must be outsloped, water barred, left in a condition to minimize erosion, drains cleaned, and blocked to vehicular traffic, or rehabilitated by ripping and sowing with native vegetation (FPC, 1993:22).

UNITED KINGDOM

Forest road engineering and maintenance is considered at all levels of planning. Specific objectives, safety standards, and environmental objectives are considered in a Forest Roads Guideline, currently in preparation, and planning is required from the local authority to build roads (Bell, pers. comm.). Forest road engineering and maintenance guidelines are consulted and adapted for local conditions (Ogg, pers. comm.). Road location is considered at the strategic forest design planning level - forest block plans covering multi-pass harvesting over several decades (Bell, pers. comm.). Roads are generally not deactivated but culvert and drain maintenance is necessary on highly used roads. Information requirements for road design include stream protection, culvert siting, treatment of cut and fill, alignment in the landscape, avoidance of scheduled and other archaeological monuments and sites, and consideration of special habitats (Bell, pers. comm.). Forest road bridges are designed by professional engineers, and both bridges and dams (with a volume > 250,000 m3) must be regularly inspected by professional engineers. In riparian areas or community water reserves, designers of forest roads are concerned with prevention of siltation or polluted water being drained into streams. Water guidelines specify requirements for maintenance and rehabilitation efforts (Bell, pers. comm.).

U.S. FOREST SERVICE (REGION 6)

Roads are considered in planning at all levels. Roads fall under the jurisdiction of many acts and regulations, including the Forest Highways Act of 1958. All activities - planning, construction, maintenance and deactivation - are addressed. Detailed requirements, including those for road drainage structures, are set by Forest Service policy (e.g. Regional Guides). Standards are set for every road. Requirements are enforced by contract clauses and regular inspections by qualified Forest Service specialists.

Special restrictions apply to roads in riparian areas. Under the ROD, some examples of guidelines (U.S. Forest Service, 1994) that apply are:

VICTORIA STATE

To provide access to the forests without compromising water quality and other environmental values, roading plans must be prepared well in advance of construction, and based on detailed field inspections and surveys.

This will enable roads to be kept to a minimum total length, constructed under suitable weather conditions, and well consolidated and drained before heavy use (Code, 1989:22, 40). Roads must be designed to carry timber harvesting traffic safely. Whenever possible, roads must be located to:

Road construction must be undertaken when rainfall and soil conditions preclude excessive erosion and deterioration of water quality (Code, 1989:23, 41). To ensure that water quality is not compromised, roads must be properly drained by the use of runoffs, culverts, or cross drains. Where a road must cross a stream or drainage line, it must be by means of a bridge, culvert or ford designed to satisfy water quality and roading requirements (Code, 1989:26, 44). Quarries, gravel pits and fill disposal areas must be planned and designed to minimise soil erosion, mass soil movement and water quality deterioration, should be visually unobtrusive, and must be rehabilitated when no longer required (Code, 1989:27, 45). Roads must be maintained to protect the road formation and to disperse and filter water before it enters streams, and must be closed, drained, and revegetated if not required following timber harvesting operations (Code, 1989:28-29, 45). Snig tracks (skid trails) must be located and used so as to minimise soil erosion, water quality deterioration, and damage to residual stand (if any). They must be drained and rehabilitated following use.

WASHINGTON

Standards for road location, design, drainage, construction, maintenance and abandonment are given in the Rules and Board Manual. Landing location, as well as pits, quarries and spoil areas are also covered. Special attention is given to protection of streams and wetlands. Areas of steep (or otherwise potentially unstable soils) are identified either through the forest practices application or through DNR's GIS mapping base.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

All road construction and maintenance must comply with procedures laid down to restrict the spread of jarrah dieback (COLP, 1990:13). Road construction must take place in dry soil conditions only. To protect water quality and riparian habitat, road operations must, for example: avoid stream reserves, except for stream crossings; minimize machine activity in watercourse and streamside vegetation disturbance; do not heap debris within 40 m of a watercourse; ensure adequate vegetation filter to prevent stream siltation (COLP, 1990:32). At the completion of logging (in softwood logging operations), all roads must be returned to the same condition as prior to logging commencing (MOLS, 1990:34).
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