19. WILDLIFE AND HABITAT

ALASKA

Logging is restricted in the vicinity of Bald Eagle nesting sites.

In the Forest Practices Code of British Columbia Act, wildlife is defined as a vertebrate that is a mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, or fish; an invertebrate (including crustaceans and molluscs); or a plant or animal listed by the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks (MoELP) as an endangered, threatened or vulnerable species including their eggs or juvenile stages.

A Wildlife Habitat Area (WHA) is a mapped area of land that has been determined as necessary to meet the habitat requirements of one or more species of identified wildlife (i.e. species at risk).

Government agencies are responsible for mapping Wildlife Habitat Areas. Operational Plans must show the location of WHA's and must describe the practices that will be followed to protect habitat values. Wildlife habitat features, such as bald eagle nests, significant mineral licks, must be protected. Management strategies for rare, threatened or endangered species must be approved by the Chief Forester and the MoELP. Species accounts with management prescriptions for identified wildlife are presented in guidebook entitled, Managing Identified Wildlife.

Clearcutting is not allowed where canopy retention is needed to maintain wildlife habitat. Livestock use in WHA's must be in accordance with an approved Range Use Plan to ensure that grazing will not impair wildlife values.

CALIFORNIA

In principle, timber operations on all lands are to be conducted to maintain suitable habitat for wildlife species. There are provisions for snag and green tree retention and for buffer zones around nesting sites for listed and non-listed bird species. Listed species include the Northern Spotted Owl and the Marbled Murrelet.

Sensitive species on state forest lands may also be identified and given special protection.

FINLAND

The Nature Conservation Act regulates the protection of endangered species. The Forest and Park Service's nature conservation unit assist in the compilation of the threatened and endangered species data register, kept by the national Board of Waters and the Environment. Data from the register are taken into account when planning silviculture activities. Table 11 outlines the number of species considered threatened by silvicultural activities in Finland.

Table 11. Number of species considered threatened in accordance with factors related to silviculture in Finland.

Management requirements for endangered species include:

• All known colonies of a species nationally listed as being extremely endangered or vulnerable must be taken into account in forest management so that the well-being of the population is not impaired.
• An effort must be made to preserve such species in those provinces where they are regarded as being locally, extremely, endangered or vulnerable.
• Protection must also be considered when a number of species requiring monitoring, inhabit the same woodlot (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994).

The Finland Forest and Park Service have identified 9 key biotopes, "valuable habitats in which the presence of endangered species is most probable (p.19)". Preservation of the key biotopes is viewed as the best way to protect threatened and endangered species. The 9 key biotopes are:

• herb-rich and fertile herb-rich heaths,
• old-growth forests,
• peatlands,
• eskers,
• burned areas,
• minor water bodies,
• rocky outcrops and cliffs,
• National heritage landscapes, and found in all of the above
• rotting wood

Rotting wood is considered one of the most important biotopes. The reduction in the amount of rotting wood in Finland's managed forests is responsible for the decline of over 200 species (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994). Most seriously affected are the invertebrates, fungi and spore bearing plants. To ensure their continuance, the following guidelines have been devised and are an example of the guidelines that exist for the protection of key biotopes:

• In regeneration areas, living trees, preferably clumps of trees, must be left to provide the required rotting wood. The trees can consist of commercially low-value specimens that are damaged, defective, twisted or full of knots.
• On fertile heath sites, broadleaf species must be left.
• On dry mineral sites, Scots pine and birch must be left.
• A quantity of trees from the previous generation proportionate to the conditions on the growing site must be left, but not so much that the regeneration and health of the stand are jeopardised.
• Ample hollow trees and snags must be left on cut areas.
• Ring-barked aspen must not be cut.
• Rotting trunks must not be removed from the ground.
• In so far as legislation on the control of pests permits, rotting wood of no commercial value can be left (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994).

Special guidelines are also in place for the protection of birds of prey. Particularly sensitive species, such as golden eagles, sea eagles, ospreys, and eagle owls have rigorous regulations. Generally, all birds of prey are protected throughout the year. It is recommended that nest trees, as well as a clump of trees surrounding the nest tree be preserved.

GERMANY

Wildlife and their habitat are not considered in the Federal Forest Act even though game populations, namely deer and elk, are an increasing problem in regenerating forests.

Hunting is a traditional recreational sport of the German people. In the early 20th century, enthusiastic hunters and rapid development drastically reduced game populations. To prevent the disappearance of the game animals, a Law was passed in 1937 that obligated property owners to feed the herds during winter months. This law is still in effect.

Foresters would like to decrease the game population because of the extensive damage they cause in newly regenerating stands. However, because of the obligatory law and society's desire for increased hunting, it is difficult to reduce the overall game population. Foresters have been sued for not feeding the herds on state land (Brunner, pers. comm.).

Harvesting quotas are set annually by the Hunting Administration, a board that is often chaired by the local forester. The quota is enforced as far as possible, but there is no mechanism for tracking the number or sex of animals killed. Hunters tend to shoot males so the reproductive capacity of the herd is not reduced.

Wildlife and habitat are protected by the Nature Preservation Act. The Act authorizes the Environmental Administration to define criteria for the designation of endangered species and recent changes to the legislation allow for the protection of their habitat. In 1992, Section 24 of the Nature Preservation Act changed from protecting only wetland habitats to protecting all special biotopes. As in most federal laws, appropriate forestry can proceed in the protected areas. However, activities can not change or destroy the biotope. This requirement is strictly enforced by the Environmental Administration.

Baden-Wurttemberg

Wildlife and habitat are not directly addressed by the Forest Law. The obligation to practice appropriate forestry does include the obligation to protect habitat.

Biotope maps at the state and regional scale, for all land ownerships, have been completed by the Environmental Administration with the help of the Forest Administration. Local area maps will be prepared in the future. The maps are available to all forest owners. Forest owners can object to the designations. Regulations that specify the appeal process have been established and a board has been created by the Forest administration to address biotope designation concerns.

The forest administration can legally protect habitats by designating them as protection forests. Special management plans are then developed for these areas. The administration may also designate habitat protection areas.

Habitat protection areas are not protected by law, but they do allow the forest administration to define special management prescriptions during the development of the 10 year forest management plan.

Forest management is changing from single species planning to ecosystem planning. Multi-aged systems that contain native flora and fauna complexes are being promoted.

Bavaria

As in Baden-Wurttemberg, game species are regulated by the Hunting Law and other native or endangered species are protected by the Nature Preservation Law.

Game species populations are closely managed because of the extensive damage large populations cause to regenerating forests. Browse data are collected regularly and used as an index of game density. The data are supplied to forest owners, hunting co-operatives, and hunting-rights owners and used to plan the annual game harvest.

Measures for the prevention of forest damage by game include:

• regulating game density to the available natural habitat,
• preservation and improvement to the game habitat by maintaining natural forests,
  • regeneration of locally adapted mixed stands,
  • use of long-term regeneration,
  • promoting fruit-bearing deciduous trees,
  • preservation of soft deciduous species which do not harm the development of stable new stands,
  • leaving branches and twigs of felled trees on the ground,
• protection of young stands from browsing and bark peeling by fencing and treatment of individual plants,
• planting of game feed and browsing areas,
• species-oriented fodder for severe winter conditions,
• establishing winter enclosures for red-deer,
• keeping and creating game refuge zones, e.g. by guiding recreational traffic and declaring game sanctuaries,
• educating citizens to a better understanding and more responsible behaviour towards nature, primarily in leisure sports (Bavarian Ministry for Food, Agriculture, and Forestry, 1989 p.35).

NOVA SCOTIA

ONTARIO

Wildlife and habitat is an important consideration in sustainable forestry in Ontario. There are no general guidelines that consider wildlife as a whole, but a series of habitat management guidelines for selected species detail silvicultural practices for maintenance of appropriate habitat. Wildlife related guidelines include:

• Timber Management Guidelines for the Provision of Deer Habitat, 1989
• Guidelines for Providing Furbearer Habitat in Timber Management, 1986
• Habitat Management Guidelines for Woodland Caribou, 1985
• Habitat Management Guidelines for Waterfowl in Ontario (For Use in Timber Management), 1985
• Timber Management Guidelines for the Provision of Moose Habitat, 1988
• Habitat Management Guidelines for Birds of Ontario Wetlands, including Marshes, Swamps and Fens or Bogs of Various Types, 1985
• Management Guidelines and Recommendations for Osprey in Ontario, 1983
• Habitat Management Guidelines for Cavity-Nesting Birds in Ontario, 1984
• Management Guidelines for the Protection of Heronries in Ontario, 1984
• Habitat Management Guidelines for Warblers of Ontario's Northern Coniferous Forests, Mixed Forests or Hardwood Forests, 1984
• Habitat Management Guidelines for Bats of Ontario, 1984
• Bald Eagle Habitat Management Guidelines, 1987
• Peregrine Falcon Habitat Management Guidelines, 1988
• Habitat Management Guidelines for Ontario's Forest Nesting Accipiters, Buteos and Eagles, 1984

OREGON

Other designated species include Osprey, Great Blue Heron and Bald Eagle.

SWEDEN

Section 30 of the Forestry Act grants the government the authority to specify the extent of consideration that must be given to nature conservation. Nature conservation in the Forestry Act includes wildlife species and their habitat. Sections 14, 16, 18, 27, 35, and 38 of the Forestry Act also require consideration of nature conservation. These sections address harvesting regulations, supervisory authority and non-compliance penalties.

Sections 14, 20, and 21 of the Nature Conservation Act grant the government or designate the authority to regulate activities that may harm threatened species (Section 14) or key habitats (Section 21). Section 20 requires all forest owners to consult with the County Forestry Board prior to commencing certain forest activities. The consultation will identify areas of possible environmental impact, including impacts to species or habitats.

Between 1993 and 1997 a nation wide inventory of key habitats, "areas which support or may be expected to support threatened, rare, or care-demanding species (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994)", will be carried out on 12 million ha of private forest land by the County Forestry Boards. The large forest companies are also conducting a key habitat inventory for their land, another 12 million ha (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.). This information will provide the baseline data for the Nature Conservation Act's habitat protection provision.

Under the provisions of the Nature Conservation Act, County Forestry Boards have the power to prevent felling and other forest activities that would affect habitats deserving special protection. The areas protected under this provision are less than 5 ha in size (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994 p.90). The Boards also have the authority to designate wildlife sanctuaries around the breeding sites of rare individual or pairs of a species. This designation prohibits access to the area during the times the animals are most sensitive to disturbance. At present there are 900 sanctuaries in Sweden covering about 60,000 ha. Wildlife sanctuary designation, however, can not control land use (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994 p.97).

The scope to protect sensitive habitats is limited by the amount of funds available to compensate owners for possible lost revenues or more difficult operating conditions. In 1993/94 the National Forestry Board had SEK 20 million (approx. $4 million Canadian) available for this purpose (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994). Another SEK 20 million (approx. $4 million Canadian) are available for the 1994/95 habitat protection fund (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.).

TASMANIA

UNITED KINGDOM

U.S. FOREST SERVICE (REGION 6)

Thirty-one percent of the National Forest area covered by the Record of Decision (ROD) is designated as late-successional reserve to provide habitat for species dependant on older forests. Also, one of the main reasons for large riparian buffers is to provide connective corridors for wildlife from one mature stand to another as well as to provide habitat for species that require riparian habitat (Iozzi, J. 1995. pers. comm.).

VICTORIA STATE

• linking areas excluded from harvest by wildlife movement corridors - strips of forest a minimum of 40 m wide which are restricted from harvesting. In some cases much wider corridors shall be retained, and where these are at least 80 m wide, selective logging is permitted on the outer 50% of the extra width;
• retaining as many habitat trees as possible;
• retaining and protecting sites designated as being biologically significant habitats. Where this is in conjunction with riparian habitat, the reserves will be a minimum linear width of 100 m;
• restricting size, varying shape, and planning distribution of cut blocks;
• modifying harvesting to aid in the conservation and protection of threatened species;
• excluding areas known to contain significant populations of rare or endangered species or vegetation types from reforestation when designing new softwood or hardwood timber plantations.

Decisions regarding the retention of wildlife habitat areas must be made by the manager only after consultation and advice from qualified biologists.

WASHINGTON

Protection is required, in particular, for the following eight designated species: Bald Eagle, Gray Wolf, Grizzly Bear, Mountain Caribou, Oregon Silver-Spot Butterfly, Peregrine Falcon, Sandhill Crane and Northern Spotted Owl.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA