There are two kinds of wilderness areas that can be established. First, there are Designated Wilderness Areas which are parts of provincial forests set aside for wilderness use by Order-In-Council. Second, Non-Designated Wilderness Areas are provincial forest lands allocated to wilderness use through approved Integrated Resource Management Plans.
Wilderness areas are multiple-use areas where timber harvesting is generally forbidden. Management plans are currently being written for each wilderness area and the current forestry practices are being evaluated during the planning process. Past harvesting in wilderness areas was subject to nature-oriented forestry, where no clearcutting, little to no site preparation, and usually only natural regeneration was allowed. Today, harvesting in wilderness areas is done to increase biological diversity and create natural succession processes (J. Heino, pers. comm.).
The Forest and Park Service encourage the careful planning of logging road networks, to ensure large unbroken tracts of forest are left in commercial forestry, as well as protected areas.
Table 1: Finland's Nature Conservation Areas and the State of the Implementation of Conservation Programs, September, 1994
Germany does not contain any wilderness areas. The entire land base of the country has been intensely managed for centuries. Areas are being protected under the Nature Preservation Act and the State Forest Laws with the intent of becoming future old-growth areas.
Currently, between 1 and 2% of Germany's total land area is protected as Landscape Protection areas through the Nature Preservation Act. In the past, protection areas were established to retain habitat for single species. Today, the focus is on ecosystem protection.
The Environmental Administration compiles strict regulations for each protected area. However, most nature preservation regulations allow appropriate forestry and agriculture. The Nature Preservation Act also protects cultural landscapes, which are seen as highly valuable areas for biodiversity. In the case of cultural landscapes, regulations are devised to prevent natural succession and retain the protected features.
Baden-Wurttemberg
Roughly one-third of Baden-Wurttemberg is preserved as Landscape Protection areas. When compiling management plans for these areas the forest administration and other interest groups are contacted by the Environmental Administration. The regulations are usually very general. They do not prevent land use change and in most cases allow appropriate forestry.
Two types of forest protection are allowed by Section 32 of the Forest Law:
Banned forests are established to provide future generations with old-growth forests. At present their natural development is monitored for research purposes.
Bavaria
Bavaria can designate banned forests under Article 11 of the Forest Law. They are called Natural or Near-Natural Forest Reserves. Activities and use of the reserves are not as restricted as in the banned forests of Baden-Wurttemberg.
National Parks are declared for "preserving extensive connected areas of a particular type of landscape in its natural state" (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1993). No forestry is practiced in national parks. Sweden presently has 23 national parks covering approximately 33,000 ha of productive forest land.
The dominant form of land protection is the nature reserve. Areas are declared nature reserves if worthy of special protection because the site contains a distinctive feature or is important for knowledge, beauty, or outdoor recreation (Section 7, Nature Conservation Act, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1993). Management of such areas vary. Facilities and activities that enhance the reserve, such as clearing, planting, roads, parking areas, and/or campsites may occur. Nature reserves can be formed on private land and landowners must tolerate the manipulation and use of their land.
All forest activities within a nature reserve can be prohibited or restricted by the Environmental agency of the County Administration Board. Each nature reserve has a management plan that lists the special restrictions. When necessary, the County Forestry Board will prohibit harvesting. However, if the reserve is established for the benefit of recreation rather than nature conservation, forestry may be carried out on a limited or sometimes a normal scale. The forest owner will receive economic compensation if the nature reserve restrictions severely limit the current land use. Nature reserves presently cover 380,000 ha of productive forest land.
Crown forest reserves have been set aside by the National Forestry Enterprise, the limited company now responsible for managing the state-owned forests. There are more than 700 crown reserves occupying 295,000 ha of productive forest land, most of which is montane forest. These reserves do not have formal protection under the Nature Conservation Act. However, crown reserves are in state ownership and will be transformed into nature reserves (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994).
Nature conservation areas are areas in which special measures are needed to protect or conserve the natural environment but which are not suitable to be set aside as reserves. Smaller areas of habitat significance are set aside as natural monuments.
This designation can be used to safeguard individual old trees. The feature and a small amount of surrounding land must be managed so that the natural object is preserved (Section 13, Nature Conservation Act, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1993).
In areas open to harvesting forest owners are responsible for leaving old and dead trees, especially when undertaking clearcutting. As well, forest owners must set aside small habitats containing rare or endangered flora or fauna. Normally, the set aside areas are less than 0.5 ha. The land owner is responsible for the environmental measures required on land used for timber production and costs related to these measures (Sweden's New Forest Policy, 1994). However, the state will compensate land owners that suffer high costs as a result of setting aside special habitats.
The penalties for non-compliance with the Nature Conservation Act are monetary fines or a maximum prison term of six months. If the offense was committed deliberately, the prison sentence may be increased to a maximum of 2 years (Section 37, The Nature Conservation Act).
Approximately 3% (700,000 ha) of Sweden's productive forest, is protected (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.). The largest reserves are in northern Sweden in the montane forest zone (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994 p.94). An additional 4 million ha of unproductive forest, wooded bogs, and marshes are also protected (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.).
The funding available for the acquisition of land deserving protection status was SEK 190 million (approx. $38 million Canadian) in 1993/94.
Mining and grazing as well as the use of power boats and aircraft are sometimes permitted in wilderness areas where such uses existed prior to designation as wilderness. However, this must be specifically authorized by Congress in the legislation designating the area as wilderness.
The Forest Service is responsible for fire, insect and disease protection and management within designated wilderness areas.
