Where possible, all jurisdictions have been reviewed in regard to the content, as well as the comprehensiveness or the degree of detail, of their forest practices regulations relative to these criteria. Due to differences in the manner by which various jurisdictions handle specific topics and their distinctive approaches to forest land management, the amount of information provided for each topic varies among the jurisdictions. This should not be viewed as a limitation of this report, but rather a reflection of the individual character of the jurisdiction.
A synopsis of this report is presented in tabular format in the Summary Report (separate document). The purpose of the summary report is to provide the reader with an abbreviated format for comparing the forest land management practices of the various jurisdictions. (Note: the reader is cautioned that in order to obtain the depth necessary to fully comprehend the topic being considered, they must utilize this main report and, where necessary, the background documents listed in the bibliography).
Operational logging plans (Detailed Plan of Operations) are mandatory under the Act and Regulations. Contents of plans include:
The State Forester must review the plan and provide a written review. Relevant comments from other agencies that are received within 20 days of the date of filing the plan must be considered. If plans are deficient in some requirement, the State Forester must notify the landowner. In any case, review response must be completed within 30 days of the date when the plan was first filed. Otherwise, operations may commence without agency input but are still subject to the laws.
Planning under the Code is defined through two separate avenues: strategic planning and operational planning. Strategic planning, which includes the establishment and specification of management objectives for Resource Management Zones, Landscape Units, and Sensitive Areas.
The Chief Forester is empowered under the Code to establish Resource Management Zones, in accordance with direction provided by Cabinet, and to specify management objectives for these zones. The management emphasis for Resource Management Zones is determined through regional land-use planning processes.
The District Manager has discretionary authority under the Code to establish Landscape Units and Sensitive Areas and the management objectives for these areas. The management objectives for Landscape Units and Sensitive Areas must be jointly approved by the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, with the exception of objectives for recreation resources. The public must be provided with an opportunity to review and comment on the establishment of these areas and the management objectives for them.
Landscape units are planning units delineated on the basis of geographic features. They may range in size from 5,000ha to 100,000ha, and may encompass a single large watershed or a series of smaller watersheds. Landscape units provide a logical context for coordinating resource management activities over the long term, and in particular, for managing biodiversity at the landscape level. Sensitive Areas are established to manage or conserve small areas of unique or locally significant resource values, for example, old-growth management areas, significant recreation features, or First Nations traditional use sites.
There are seven different operational plans required under the code. Four of these plans (Forest Development Plans, Access Management Plans, Five-Year Silviculture Plans, Range Use Plans) are longer term plans that describe proposed activities for a period of at least 5 years. The other three plans (Silviculture Prescriptions, Logging Plans, Stand Management Prescriptions) are site-specific plans that describe in detail the actions that will be taken to achieve the management objectives stated in the longer-term plans or in higher-level plans.
Guidelines for planning are provided in guidebooks developed for each of the plans.
Operational planning is carried out through Timber Harvesting Plans (THP's) or Nonindustrial Timber Management Plans (NTMP's). Operational plans are required under the Act. They must be prepared by an RPF and are of three years duration. Extensions to a maximum of two years are allowed.
Plans include information about:
A 1993 checklist prepared by CDF in association with the California Licensed Foresters Association and the Professional Foresters Examining Committee has 68 items to be checked off for completion.
Details of the requirements are in Subchapter 7, Article 2 (THP's) and Article 6.5 (NTMP's) of the California Forest Practice Rules.
THP's must be accepted or rejected for filing by CDF within 10 days of submission. A pre-harvest site inspection may be required. Following review by CDF and other agencies, there is a 15 -day public comment period. Some plans (those that required a pre-harvest inspection) require a second review by a team from CDF and other agencies. The plan is then sent to the Director, CDF. That office has 10 days to approve or reject the THP. Once the THP is approved, the public has a 30-day period to appeal. Heads of other government agencies can also appeal. Rejected THP's can be appealed by the submitter.
Operators are also required to notify CDF when operations are to commence or recommence. Notice must be given within 15 days of start-up.
THP's have come under criticism recently from the forest industry, environmental advocacy groups and government agencies for being too complex, inequitable and costly (Little Hoover Commission, 1994).
A government initiative during the 1970's and 1980's called for the preparation of regional forestry plans. As a result of this initiative stand- wise and ownership inventories exist for all private forests, and forest management plans have been completed for 73% of the privately owned lands. The forest management plans are usually 10 year plans. They include a resource inventory, site and stand descriptions and estimates, stand tending proposals, site and stand maps, growing stock estimates, and growth increment and sustainable cut by timber type (Kuusela, 1993). Forest owners may purchase these plans from the district offices.
Both strategic and operational plans are developed for state forests. The national strategic forestry plans are based on full-country forest inventories completed by the Forest Research Institute. Seven complete country inventories have been done; 1921-24, 1937-38, 1951-53, 1960-64, 1964-70, 1977-84,1985-94. Early strategic plans were directed toward wood production, the extension of silvicultural and forest improvement works, and the development of forest industries (Kuusela, 1993). Today, strategic plans are based on the ecological principles of sustainability, multiple use, forest ecosystem diversity, cultural heritage and social values (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994). Principles to obtain the desired forest structure are described in the strategic forestry plan of each management unit .
At the operational level, management plans are devised for forest tending, regeneration and harvesting. Harvesting plans must consider environmental protection requirements and impacts (Finnish Forest and Park Service, 1994).
Multi-purpose forest management plans, nature management plans, and landscape management plans are outlined in Finland's new environmental program for forestry (Ministries of Agriculture, Forestry, and Environment, 1994). It is expected that these plans will be in general use throughout Finland by 1995.
Federal Republic of Germany
Section 7 of the Federal Forestry Law stipulates that all State forestry administrations compile framework plans. The plans are compiled with the agreement of the forest owners (Federal Republic of Germany, 1994) and become a component of the State's Regional land-use plan. The intended function of the forest must be clearly stated in the plan.
The goals of forestry planning as outlined by Section 6 of the Federal Forest Law are:
Baden-Wurttemberg
Section 20 of the Forest Law requires the preparation of forest management and annual plans for all state and community forests. Private holdings with more than 100 ha of forest must also prepare a forest management plan. The management plans are compiled by the Administrative Forest Districts with the assistance of the Forest Offices. Occasionally, a professional forester will compile the management plan for a community forest. If the plan is compiled by a professional forester, the forest administration has three months to request changes (Section 50, Forest Law). Forest management plans are for a ten year period and include an assessment of the previous plan (predicted forest volume as compared to existing), a forest inventory, and a silviculture prescription.
Section 50 of the Forest Law outlines the requirements of the forest management (periodical management) plans. Generally, the 10 year plans must create a balance between forest protection, timber production, and recreation.
The annual cut, stand silviculture prescriptions, and maps, are prepared for each forest holding based on the inventory information. Standing volume of each forest stand is calculated. Stands are usually between 0.1 and 10 ha in size. The forest stands scheduled for harvesting within the 10 year plan are intensely measured for an accurate volume assessment. The remaining stands are sampled and their volume is estimated.
The forest administration of the State Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Forestry reviews and approves all 10 year plans. Ministry staff also conduct annual field audits.
Annual forest plans are prepared by the Forest Offices and approved by the Administrative Forest District. Requirements of the annual plan are listed in Section 51 of the Forest Law. Annual plans should predict revenues and management costs, identify stands for harvest, and outline required silviculture practises. The plans are based on the decennial inventory included in the forest management plan and must be consistent with its objectives. Proof that the annual plans have been executed must be provided to the Administrative Forest District. If an annual plan is prepared by a professional forester, the forest administration has one month to request changes (Section 51, Forest Law).
Privately owned forests are not obligated to prepare annual forest plans.
Bavaria
Formal plans are required for all forest activities. The requirement is specified in the Forest Law and in the Forest Taxation Regulations. Plans are compiled at both a strategic and an operational level. Woodland Use Plans are strategic plans prepared by the Administrative Forest Districts. Woodland Use Plans are compiled for a 10 year period for state forests and 20 years for community forests (Brinkmann, pers. comm.). The Woodland Use Plans are an integral part of land use planning in Bavaria. They consist mainly of maps that show the designated function of the forest land. Categories included in the maps are:
Three operational plans are compiled by the Forest Offices. These are forest management plans, silvicultural planning, and annual operational planning (Brinkmann, pers. comm.). Contents of these plans are similar to the description given for Baden-Wurttemberg. The operational plans must conform to the Woodland Use Plan as well as the overall Regional Land-Use Plan (Bavarian Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Forestry).
At the strategic planning level, the Forest Management Planning process predicts the effects of various forest management alternatives, and considers desired rotation, availability of land for forest management, eligibility and priority of harvesting, forest renewal and stand tending, and size of silviculture programs required, full consideration of wildlife conservation requirements, potential ecological impacts and outdoor recreation opportunities and needs, and the preparation of operational forest management plans for Crown lands and the development and implementation of compatible forest management programs for privately owned lands in co-operation with the owners or occupiers of private land (Forests Act, 1986: s. 8).
Operational plans include Forest Management Plans and Annual Operating Plans. Within 90 days of the execution of a licence agreement between the Company and the Province of Nova Scotia's Department of Natural Resources (DNR), the province must provide the Company with a five year Forest Management Plan. The Forest Management Plan will be developed in consultation with the Company, and must show the location of operations, cutting patterns, volumes proposed for cutting, and location of necessary roads. The company must submit an Annual Operating Plan relating directly to the current Five Year Management plan to the DNR, on or before November 1 of each year, for cutting forest products from Crown lands licensed under the license agreement. The Annual Operating Plan must detail locations, cutting patterns, areas and volumes by product type proposed for cutting practices which shall maximize the utilization of forest products, taking into account practices that best contribute to the sustained development and benefit of the Province and the Company (NS Standing Long Term License Agreement, 1993:12). The Annual Operating Plan must be approved in writing no later than 60 days after submission to the province.
Under the Forestry Canada/Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources Cooperation Agreement for Forestry Development (C.A.F.D, 1991-1995) Woodlot Management Plans (for landowners in the 20-400 ha class), provide landowners with a general property description, woodlot map, stand by stand description, and treatment recommendations (M.O.P.S., 1994, Ch 1:3). For landowners with 401 - 2000 ha, a Multi-Year Operating Plan and Annual Proposal is designed to identify potential forest management activities over a five-year period, serving as a guide for conducting silviculture work and services on an annual basis (M.O.P.S., 1994, Ch 4:3). Woodlot Management Plans and Multi-Year Operating Plans must be prepared by accredited professional foresters (M.O.P.S., 1994, Ch 4:1).
In Ontario, Crown lands are divided into 90 forest management units, ranging in size from 50,000 to 1,000,000 ha. Bill 171, the new Crown Forest Sustainability Act, requires a Forest Management Plan for each forest management unit.
Forest Management Plans are twenty year plans that are reviewed and renewed every 5 years. In effect, FMPs are both strategic and operational plans. Strategic direction is developed at the management unit level for the long term (20 years), and must be consistent with legal commitments, provincial government and MNR policies, regional strategic direction and local land use and resource management direction (Graham, pers. comm.).
As the FMP is implemented, performance is monitored and management strategies are evaluated in the plan's five year review and Report of Past Forest Operations (FMPM, 1994:51). Then, in subsequent forest management plans, any necessary adjustments to previous strategic management direction are made, and the cycle of planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and adjustment is repeated - the essence of adaptive management (FMPM, 1994:52). The FMP will be reviewed and renewed every five years. However, if the current plan becomes obsolete, provision is made to conduct an unscheduled renewal (FMPM, 1994:134). Annual Work Schedules identify and outline the operations to be carried out during the year and must be part of an approved forest management plan.
Planning teams are established 27 months prior to the date scheduled for plan approval. Along with this interdisciplinary team, a Local Citizen's Committee (LCC) is established to participate in the planning process, and a formal consultation process is outlined.
Locally, the planning team, a Local Citizen's Committee, and the general public determine general management objectives for each management unit. Specific management objectives, with associated quantified targets are determined through analysis. Management alternatives, comprised of a set of specific management objectives, quantified targets and management strategies which aim to achieve those strategies, are identified (Graham, pers. comm.).
Plans must be prepared by a Registered Professional Forester. Plans will be available for public review and upon satisfactory completion, will be approved by the Minister. Plan amendments may be initiated by any person, must be prepared by a registered professional forester, and are subject to public review. Minor amendments or administrative amendments may be approved by the district manager, and major amendments will be considered by the regional director. All approved amendments will form part of the Forest Management Plan (FMPM, 1994:129-133).
Written Plans are required when:
In the first two of the above-listed examples, a 14-day waiting period is required before operations can begin.
Written Plans, at a minimum, must address:
Specific information on details such as: road and landing design and locations; construction techniques; drainage systems; disposal of waste materials; felling, bucking and yarding methods; yarding layout; buffer strips; riparian area protection; are required.
In addition, the Forestry Act does not require site management objectives to be established and integrated with strategic level planning objectives. However, the larger forest companies do try to integrate these factors in their planning systems (P. Kjellin, pers. comm.).
National forestry plans are prepared by the National Board of Forestry. The national plans are valid for one to three years and contain a summary of planning information prepared annually by the County Forestry Boards. The County boards receive planning instructions from the National Forestry Board. In addition to summary information, the National plans contain detailed objectives for production and environmental aspects. They also outline possible implementation techniques, such as supervision of the Act, extension service, inventories and commercial services to the forest owners. The national plan also identifies economic resources and outlines how they should be used.
The County Forestry Board's may also prepare a nature conservation orientated forest management plan if requested by the forest owner. The nature conservation plans identify areas that require special management practices. Forest owners are obligated to report final felling six weeks prior to the planned harvesting date. The final felling form includes information on the area to be harvested, drainage works that will be installed, and how nature conservation and cultural heritage preservation in the proposed harvesting area will be preserved (Section 14, Forestry Act). The form is used by forestry and environment administrations to assess the intended operations. Operations may be halted if the proposed harvesting does not comply with the Forestry Act.
If the environmental administration wishes to stop harvesting they must designate the area as a nature reserve. Forest owners are compensated if their land is given reserve status. The environmental administration either buys the land, at full price, or pays for revenue lost from specified forest activity restrictions (P. Kjellin pers. comm.).
Important areas are protected as reserves and managed with a special plan. Important areas include reindeer breeding areas and forest land surrounding communities, areas with nature conservation goals, such as key habitats, and areas with heritage values that are protected by law. Occasionally, wildlife managed for hunting will also require special management. The management of these areas is paid for by the state.
At the second level, fourteen Special Management Zones determine where extra emphasis should be placed on management for other values. Where Special Management Zones fall within the primary zone designations, special emphasis is placed on management or values over and above that given by Primary Zones. (Bird, 1993:4).
Forest Management Plans (FMPs) describe the features and resources of large areas, and emphasize land use issues and decisions. FMP's are prepared at the district level, and provide extensive opportunity for public review and input.
At the tactical planning level, Three Year Wood Production Plans (updated each year), are prepared by Regional staff and describe the areas, reserves, timber volumes, roading and harvesting operations for the period (Wilkinson, pers. comm.).
Operational plans are detailed plans for the use of a small area over a short time period. Timber Harvesting Plans (THP) are prepared by district staff, and follow the standards set out in the Forest Practices Code. THP's are required for both Crown land and private property timber harvesting operations, and specific local conditions are taken into account in preparing the plan (Guide to THP's, FCT,1988:4). Other relevant agencies and experts must be consulted prior to plan approval or when an amendment is requested. THP's must be drawn up and approved before any commercial harvesting operation commences (for other than minor operations). A Forest Practice Officer will approve, refuse to approve, or amend the plan within 28 days of receipt of the application (FPA:1985,15).
Forest reserves, or areas with complex land use considerations, are subject to multiple use plans, and thematic management plans deal with specific issues such as the management of tree ferns or special timbers (Wilkinson, pers. comm.).
On private forest lands, large companies produce Three Year Wood Production plans to show the expected source of private wood and include details on roading, cartage routes, etc.(Wilkinson, pers. comm.).
At the operational planning level, Woodland Grant Schemes (WGS) are five year plans designed to carry out work on a site-specific basis. A Woodland Grant Scheme plan is not required if a person wishes to plant trees, but if that person does not apply for entry into the WGS, they will not receive remuneration for planting efforts. The WGS is a legally binding agreement between the owner and the Government. The plan allows work to proceed, but does not specify how or when the work should proceed. However, if an area is clearcut, it must be replanted as agreed in the WGS (Ogg, pers. comm.). Plans generally contain details on the area of harvest and reforestation, extraction routes, species, volume to be removed, retention of any wind firm trees for amenity reasons, and site preparation techniques (Ogg, pers. comm.). Professional Foresters can apply for amendments to the plan as they see fit. A proposed plan is put forward to the local Forestry Authority Officer for discussion and amendment, and it then goes to a Regional Advisory Committee. Local Authorities are consulted, and if it is determined that designated areas might be affected, appropriate agencies are consulted. Public consultation is rarely necessary, and is not a required component of the WGS (Ogg, pers. comm.).
Under the ROD, watershed analysis is required for any proposed projects within riparian areas or in designated key watersheds. The result of watershed analysis is a multiple use plan including the following items:
The time frame for planning varies considerably. The LRMP process should normally take about two or three years; because of legal challenges, it has sometimes taken as much as 10 years. Project planning for timber sales may take from three to five years or only about six months for road decommissioning.
The State is divided into Watershed Administrative Units (WAU's) that vary from about 10,000 to 50,000 acres (4,000 to 20,000 ha). Priority for completing each WAU assessment is then established. Assessments are carried out by qualified teams of scientists and managers using procedures outlined in a Forest Practices Board Manual (Washington Forest Practices Board, 1994).
About 18 watersheds have been completed and 20 to 30 more are expected to be done next fiscal year. The process is intended mainly to address cumulative effects of forest practices on fish, water and capital improvements.
Some forest companies carry out a voluntary annual review, which involves strategic level planning.
Hardwood
Softwood
